Here are some reminders and checklists to study before you compose assignments or prepare to write later, under the time pressure of an exam essay.
- A paragraph is a series of sentences developing a single topic.
- The sentence stating the topic of a paragraph is called the topic sentence.
- The topic sentence usually comes at the beginning of the paragraph, so that the reader can immediately tell exactly what the paragraph is about.
- Sometimes the topic sentence appears in the middle of the paragraph.
- Sometimes the topic sentence comes at the end of the paragraph, where it may serve as the climax to a series of details that led up to it. It may be a conclusion based on the evidence presented in the paragraph.
- A paragraph is usually developed by means of additional, detailed information given in support of the idea expressed in the topic sentence.
- A good paragraph is the product of planning, first with a simple inventory, in no special order, of your ideas on the topic chosen; followed by a culling of irrelevant ideas and an ordering of the remaining ideas into an outline.
- A paragraph should be unified. Unity is achieved by discussing only one topic in a paragraph, the topic stated in the topic sentence.
- A paragraph should have coherence; that is, its ideas should be arranged according to a definite plan and should be clearly linked to one another.
- You should learn to write at least four kinds of paragraphs: expository, descriptive, narrative, persuasive.
- Develop an expository paragraph with facts and specific examples.
- The arrangement of the sentences in an expository paragraph will determine how easily the reader can follow the writer’s train of thought. Without logical organization, the information in an expository paragraph will be difficult to understand.
- Arrange the details in an expository paragraph in a coherent, logical order.
- The facts or details in an expository paragraph may be given in the order of their importance, may be given in chronological order, or, may be given in order of comparison or contrast.
- Develop a descriptive paragraph with concrete (specific) details. Arrange the details of a descriptive paragraph in coherent order. The details in a descriptive paragraph may be given in chronological order, or, in spatial order.
- Develop a narrative paragraph with a brief story.
- Develop a persuasive paragraph with reasons. Reasons in a persuasive paragraph may be given in the order of importance. Generally it is better to begin with the least important reason and build up to the most important reasons, thereby providing a solid foundation for a vigorous conclusion. In other cases, where the writer may have one very important reason and several less important ones, it may be appropriate to do just the reverse, that is, to give the most compelling fact or reason first and then support it with the less important details.
- Strengthen a paragraph by using linking expressions and connectives which help the reader to follow the line of thought from one idea to the next.
- Keep the thought of a paragraph flowing smoothly from sentence to sentence by using pronouns which refer to words and ideas in preceding sentences.
- Keep the thought and purpose of the paragraph flowing smoothly from sentence to sentence by the use of linking or transition expressions.
- In Standard English, the primary meaning of the word "revision" is " the process of changing something in order to improve it by correcting it or including new information or ideas".
- When performing a "revision" of your writing, especially when revising your paragraphs and rewriting each one, it might help you if you learn, and keep in mind, this 11 point Checklist for paragraph revision (i.e. for writing another draft):
1. With regard to the phrasing of the topic sentence, is it concise and directly to the point? Does it make the topic narrow enough?
2. Will the topic sentence arouse the reader’s curiosity? Will it produce agreement or disagreement?
3. Does the paragraph have unity?
4. Have you used good examples, specific facts, sensory details, vivid comparisons, convincing reasons?
5. Does the paragraph have coherence. In what order are the details arranged? Are linking (transition) expressions and other connecting devices used properly?
6. Does the paragraph rise to a climax, come to a conclusion, reach a solution? Does it merit a summarizing, or clincher, sentence?
7. Is the paragraph adequately developed? By what method or combination of methods is it developed?
8. Did you check the spelling of every doubtful word and refer to a list of your own commonly misspelled words?
9. Have you looked for unnecessary words; for trite expressions?
10. Are you confident that the grammatical usage is correct?
11. Have you checked your own "error chart", or earlier compositions, to see that your special weaknesses are not being repeated? - When writing a composition of four or five paragraphs on a certain subject, limit your topic to one part of the subject and in the opening paragraph indicate that limitation by stating, in a clear and definite way, the purpose of your composition, that is, by stating how you intend to treat that topic.
- Focusing on a specific part of the overall subject will help you to choose the ideas to use in your composition.
- Choose a title for the composition that reflects your purpose.
- When planning the composition, prepare a proper heading outline by listing your ideas, and then organize them under a few main headings. When doing so, put the headings in a proper order, and then convert these headings into an outline of topics and subtropics that will be addressed.
- Keep in mind good models of five paragraph essays you have previously studied.
- If you have the time to revise your composition remember that you want to present it in a neat and attractive form that reflects the thought and care you have devoted to this exercise and performance of your writing skills.
- When revising, note the general organization of the composition, its adherence to your outline, the paragraphing, the use of transitional expressions, the divisions of the content into introduction, body, and conclusion.
- Consider learning, and keeping in mind, this 8 point Composition Revision Checklist:
1. Does your introduction contain a clear statement of purpose?
2. Does each paragraph have only one main idea?
3. Are the main ideas developed by a variety of methods-factual details, concrete details, examples, reasons, comparisons, contrasts?
4. Do you use transitions to bridge gaps between paragraphs?
5. Is each main idea in the composition related to the topic as a whole?
6. Does your composition follow a logical order of development?
7. Is your final draft free from errors in capitalization, punctuation, sentence structure, spelling, word choice, and grammar?
8. Is your title interesting and suggestive of the main idea in your composition? - In English writing exams, an essay represents an impromptu composition written under time pressure about a specific subject.
- When writing the essay answer, everything you have learned about writing compositions in English can be brought to bear during that task. In addition, the following 9 simple hints should be kept in mind:
1. Read the test question slowly and carefully. Watch for key terms used in the question and follow them exactly. For instance (a) compare (find likenesses); (b) contrast (point out differences); (c) criticize (find faults and merits); (d) discuss (examine, analyze carefully, and come to a conclusion); (e) explain (spell out how and why); (f) summarize (condense the main points); (g) trace (give a description of progress, sequence, or development).
2. Plan your time and your answer. Calculate on the basis of the point value of the question and the total time of the test. Jot down your ideas in a simple outline with usually not more than three or four major points. Write down some of the academic vocabulary you think is relevant, that you are quite comfortable using, and that you think can enhance the meaning you want to express.
3. Write with your highest and best level of handwriting, using a dark ink pen. Make your punctuation clear and unambiguous.
4. Single space your paragraphs and double space between paragraphs. Clearly indent each new paragraph.
5. Write a good introductory paragraph in which you refer directly to the question (but do not just simply repeat the question), and state the main point, or thesis, of your answer.
6. Devote one paragraph to each main point, and begin it always with a topic sentence. In this way your main points will stand out to the examiner grading your essay.
7. Illustrate and support what you say by specific details, examples, and references. Examiners will not be impressed by unsupported generalities.
8. Summarize what you have said in a good concluding paragraph, and in doing so, use some fresh vocabulary that has not already been used in the essay.
9. Allow yourself a few minutes to proofread what you have written, checking carefully for spelling and usage errors. If you encounter a mistake, draw a single line through it and write the correction above it. Do not use liquid or tape correcting substances on the paper. - A sample essay of this type might go as follows:
1. First paragraph: Refer to the test question and give a statement of your answer;
2. Second paragraph: State the first main point followed by supporting facts;
3. Third paragraph: State the second main point followed by specific examples;
4. Fourth paragraph: State the third main point followed by specific details;
5. Fifth paragraph: Summary, using fresh, relevant vocabulary and content that is totally consistent with the earlier content. - In an essay exam question seeking your opinion or views, the essay should be a written statement of your belief about an arguable subject, supported by evidence and written to convince.
- Here are 4 groups of suggestions you should remember and consider when writing an opinion essay:
1. Jot down a list of the arguments that support your stand. Cross out any that are self-evident, trivial or irrelevant. The ones that remain should have two genuine sides to them, in other words, they should be issues. You should, if you have time, try to anticipate and refute some of the arguments that are opposed to your view. Aim to convince by using effective examples.
2. Begin your essay effectively. Catch the reader’s interest. State the subject of the argument fairly and clearly. Define any terms likely to be misunderstood. Indicate the issues to be discussed. Consider (if important) the history and significance of the question.
3. Support your point of view with evidence. When you quote from authority, identify the authority. If you cite facts, give the source. When you use an example, do not claim that the one example establishes a general rule. Be logical and fair.
4. Conclude your essay by summarizing your main arguments with fresh language and indicate a future course of action that you might recommend. - Mechanics - Capitalization, Punctuation, Spelling.
- Capitalization - learn the rules used to individualize what you are writing about.
- Punctuation - is needed to improve the clarity of what you mean when you write. There are only two reasons to use punctuation: (1) because the meaning demands it , or (2) because conventional usage requires it.
Always consider punctuation when you are writing English. Do not overuse punctuation. Too little is better than too much. You need to learn how and when to use these 12 signals to clarify the meaning of your written communications:
1. Periods
2. Question marks
3. Exclamation points
4. Commas
5. Semicolons
6. Colons
7. Underlining (Italics)
8. Quotation Marks
9. Apostrophes
10. Hyphens
11. Dashes
12. Parentheses - Spelling - You can improve your spelling if you really want to and if you are really willing to make the effort. In reality, no one else can help you. Learning to spell is a personal responsibility. Learn to spell through online resources already mentioned to you. Learn the basic spelling rules. Get addicted to English-only dictionaries. In your main English notebooks devote a section to listing words you misspell. Learn to spell words by syllables. Avoid mispronunciations that lead to spelling errors. Learning the correct pronunciation of a word will help you to spell it right.
- Holistic Factors - Lexical resources, Dictionary, Grammatical Range and Accuracy, Task Accomplishment, Appropriate Register.
- Lexical Resources - The range of vocabulary used in the writing and the precision with which meanings and attitudes can be expressed...the variety of words used...the adequacy and apprropriacy of the words used...the ability to get around a vocabulary gap with no noticeable effect , by rapidly locating and using other words of similar appropriateness... the ability to proofread, detect and repair errors encountered upon revision of the writing. This is sometimes referred to as the ability to repair.
- Dictionary - use an English-only dictionary, and an online Concordancer, to help you improve the range and accuracy of your English vocabulary.
- Grammatical Range and Accuracy - The range of grammatical resources displayed in the writing...the accuracy and apprropriacy of grammatical resources attempted, the length of sentences...the complexity of sentences...the appropriate use of subordinate clauses...the range of sentence structures used, especially to move elements around for information focus. The number of grammatical errors in a given amount of writing and the communicative effect of error... The amount of comprehension-processing strain caused to the reader by the writer’s unintelligibility, ambiguity, imprecision, self-contradiction, incoherence, inaccuracy, disorganization of ideas communicated... The effect of the writer’s first language upon the second language output. Overall effectiveness.
- Task Accomplishment - The extent and degree to which the imposed writing task, the whole imposed writing task and nothing but the imposed writing task, was accomplished within the time limit.
- Appropriate Register - The words, style and grammar used in different kinds of writing.
- Examples of different registers include, but are not limited to, a letter of condolence, a letter of complaint, an editorial, a no trespassing notice, a letter of invitation, a letter of appreciation, a notice of termination of employment, a certificate of merit, an obituary, a notice of birth, a Last Will and Testament, an indictment, an engagement announcement, an offer of sale, a judicial order, a certificate of merit, a drug prescription, a manual of instructions, a ransom notice, a "Dear John" letter, an accident report, examination instructions, a love letter, an academic thesis, a textbook, a student’s notes, an organizational chart, a dinner menu, a recipe, an autopsy report, a memo of instructions to staff, an apology, an advertisement, a warranty, a ticket.
- Each of these and others types of text tends to employ a specific range of words, style and grammar, to communicate effectively in a manner appropriate to the surrounding and accompanying circumstances.
- Sensitivity to the techniques of employing appropriate register is acquired through diverse extensive reading, and by continuous writing practice using various types of text in the course of employing English to accomplish various tasks.
- That’s it, folks. (Hope these reminders help you !).
_____________________________ - Fair Use Notice
- Some of the material expressed in this particular blog entry (017), is adapted from descriptions of many standard English grammar rules and composition conventions, such as those found in John E. Warriner’s English Grammar and Composition Fourth Course, 1982. published and copyright 1982 by Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Publishers. This particular blog entry may contain copyrighted material the use of which has not been specifically authorized by the copyright owner. This material is made available in this blog entry to advance understanding of English grammar and composition conventions among second language learners. It is believed that this constitutes a 'fair use' of any such copyrighted material as provided for in the relevant copyright laws. In accordance with those laws, the material in this blog entry is distributed without profit to those who have expressed a prior interest in receiving the included information for research and educational purposes. For more information go to: http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/17/107.shtml. If you wish to use copyrighted material from any entry or link on this Blog for purposes of your own that go beyond 'fair use', you must obtain prior permission from the copyright owner.
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